Glucuronidation is a major metabolic pathway that determines the disposition of several endogenous substrates, such as for example, estriol and bilirubin, as well as exogenous substrates such as ethinylestradiol. The UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs) are a superfamily of enzymes which catalyze these reactions with UDG-glucuronic acid as a cofactor. The UGT superfamily comprises at least ten isozymes in rat and more than ten isozymes in humans. In fact, a total of 15 human UGT isozymes have been identified each with distinct substrate specificities, UGT1A1 being a bilirubin-specific isozyme. Bilirubin is the principal product of heme catabolism, and is cleared from circulation by the liver where it undergoes glucuronidation, i.e., conjugation with glucuronic acid to form water-soluble metabolites such as mono- and diglucuronides which are ultimately excreted in the feces.
Indinavir (Merck & Co. Inc., New Jersey, USA) is a potent and commonly used protease inhibitor that has been shown to be highly effective against HIV when used in combination with reverse transcriptase inhibitors. Zucker, S. D., Qin. X, Rouster, S. D., et al. Mechanism of indinavir-induced hyperbilirubinemia, PNAS 2001; 98:12671–12676. Unfortunately, indinavir therapy is associated with a 6-25% incidence of asymptomatic, unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia in the absence of histologic liver injury. Id. Patients in whom excessive accumulation of bilirubin leads to the development of clinical jaundice have been subjected to treatment interruption and additional clinical investigation. Id. It has been found that elevations in serum-unconjugated bilirubin associated with indinavir treatment result from direct inhibition of bilirubin-conjugating activity. Id.
Similarly, Atazanavir (Bristol-Myers Squibb, New Jersey, USA) also causes an elevation in blood levels of unconjugated bilirubin. In one study, 57% of subjects taking atazanavir exhibited unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia. Agarwala, S., Russo, R., et al. Steady State Pharmacokinetic (PK) Interaction Study of Atazanavir (ATV) with Ritonavir (RTV) in Healthy Subjects, poster presented at the 42nd Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, San Diego, Calif., Sep. 27–30, 2002. It has been found that atazanavir in both an in vitro system of human microsomes and in human cells transfected with the UGT1A1 isoform inhibits bilirubin conjugation in the micromolar range. O'Mara, E., Mummaneni, V. et al. Relationship Between Uridine Diphosphate-Glucuronosyl Transferase (UDP-GT) 1A1 Genotype and Total Bilirubin Elevations in Healthy Subjects Receiving BMS-232632 and Saquinavir, poster presented at the 40th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, Sep. 17–20, 2000.
Unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia is also an adverse effect associated with medicaments or combinations of medicaments such as, for example, amphotericin B/cholesteryl sulfate complex, testosterone, interferon beta-1b, bicalutamide, ciprofloxacin, oxaliplatin, floxuridine, gemcitabine hydrochloride, sargramostim, gemtuzumab ozogamicin, vinorelbine tartrate, carboplatin, peginterferon alfa-2B, tacrolimus, aldesleukin, dalfopristin/quinupristin, didanosine and capecitabine.
In order to overcome a disease or disorder or adverse effect due to elevations in serum UGT1A1 substrates such as, for example, unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia it is desirable to induce UGT1A1.
It is also desirable to be able to treat HIV infection and AIDS with potent HIV protease inhibitors such as, for example, indinavir and atazanavir without having to discontinue treatment because of elevations in serum bilirubin caused by inhibition of UGT1A1.
Further, it is desirable to administer medicaments such as, for example, amphotericin B/cholesteryl sulfate complex, testosterone, interferon beta-1b, bicalutamide, ciprofloxacin, oxaliplatin, floxuridine, gemcitabine hydrochloride, sargramostim, gemtuzumab ozogamicin, vinorelbine tartrate, carboplatin, peginterferon alfa-2B, tacrolimus, aldesleukin, dalfopristin/quinupristin, didanosine and capecitabine without having to discontinue treatment because of elevations in serum bilirubin.